Dionysios Solomos (1798 – 1857), a Greek poet and central figure of the Heptanese School, is considered and regarded as the national poet of Greece, not only because he composed the National Anthem but also for his use of earlier poetic traditions (Cretan literature, folk songs). His poetry revolves around major themes that have occupied philosophers and poets, such as freedom, nature, religion, death, and love. In his poems, freedom triumphs over nature, and religion over death.

In the poem “The Destruction of Psara”, the central theme is the glorification of the heroes who fell in the tragic events at Psara following the island’s capture by the Turks in June 1941. The heroism of the Greeks, love for the homeland, and the personified Glory are exalted. Deeply moved, the poet seeks to emphasize through his verses that the demise of the Greeks will be accompanied by immortal glory. Nature plays a prominent role in this depiction. Solomos, with exceptional skill, managed to convey the magnitude of the destruction, the emotional intensity, and the grief. In this tragic setting, nature shares in the suffering: “Completely black ridge—few tufts of grass—desolate land.” The highest part of the island, its ridge, is also black, symbolizing total destruction and indicating the supreme sacrifice humanity can reach. Contrasting images frame the vividness of the description: “Glory alone—brilliant young men—desolate land” (the image of the devastated landscape).

 In this complete stillness, the only moving entity is Glory. With expressive simplicity yet vivid imagery, Solomos manages to depict the desolation of the place and the glory owed to the heroes of Psara. In the desolate landscape, ravaged by destruction, the personified Glory walks alone, contemplating the brilliant young men, the heroic warriors who perished there.

Simultaneously, Dionysios Solomos addresses the themes of nature and freedom in another of his remarkable poems, “The Free Besieged”, which occupied him more than any other. In this work (Fragments I, II, and III), the ideal of absolute freedom is achieved only in the real world. The differing representation of nature in this poem compared to “The Destruction of Psara” is evident. The besieged, suspended between two extremes, confront the beauty and vibrancy of spring nature on one side and the destructive forces of the enemy on the other, ultimately sacrificing their lives as an act of heroic resistance. They overcome the challenges they face—first natural (such as hunger), then psychological—until they reach the supreme moment of sacrifice. Nature, intensely active, enchants with its presence: “April dances and laughs with Eros—A little white mountain of sheep moves and bleats—The beauties of heaven—A blue butterfly—Perfumed the wild lily—Nature is enchantment and a dream…” Everything vibrates, nothing remains still. Everything manifests a rhythm, a portion of movement, a sway back and forth. Thus, the Besieged undergo a final trial against the beauties of the surrounding nature, striving for their souls to achieve true freedom by renouncing all earthly things: “Nature is enchantment and a dream—The black stone is golden—With a thousand springs it flows—Whoever dies today dies a thousand times.” 

In contrast, in the poem “The Destruction of Psara,” nature silently and mournfully, both literally and metaphorically, laments and shares in the overall destruction: “completely black ridge—few tufts of grass—desolate land.” In this way, Solomos, by weaving a unique network of contrasting relationships—perhaps influenced by fundamental principles of Hermetic Philosophy—succeeds in making his descriptions more vivid and conveying his multifaceted messages, elevating his heroes and immortalizing iconoclastically the thematic axes of his depiction.

REFERENCES

Beaton  R., Εισαγωγή στη Νεοελληνική Λογοτεχνία, Μτφ. Ε. Ζουργού- Μ. Σπανάκη, Εκδ. Νεφέλη, Αθήνα 1996.

Mackridge P.,  «Τα ποιήματα του Σολωμού και τα κύρια θέματά τους», (απόσπασμα), στο μ. Μπακογιάννης (Επιμ), Ανθολόγιο Κριτικών Κειμένων για τη μελέτη της Νεοελληνικής Λογοτεχνίας ( 19ος και 20ος αιώνας), σ.σ. 29-38, Εκδ. ΕΑΠ, Πάτρα 2008.

Σολωμός  Δ.,«Ελεύθεροι Πολιορκημένοι», (από το Β΄Σχεδίασμα), στο Χ. Δανιήλ (Επιμ), Ανθολόγιο Κριτικών Κειμένων για τη μελέτη της Νεοελληνικής Λογοτεχνίας ( 19ος και 20ος αιώνας), σ.σ. 68-69, Εκδ. ΕΑΠ, Πάτρα 2008.

Σολωμός Δ., «Η καταστροφή των Ψαρών», στο Χ. Δανιήλ (Επιμ), Ανθολόγιο Κριτικών Κειμένων για τη μελέτη της Νεοελληνικής Λογοτεχνίας ( 19ος και 20ος αιώνας), σ. 65, Εκδ. ΕΑΠ, Πάτρα 2008.

 

Introduction

Until recently, it was widely accepted that history textbooks played a significant role in cultivating ethnocentrism among children. However, with an increasing number of foreign students now attending Greek schools, one would expect this situation to have evolved. Textbooks in the 21st century should adopt an intercultural perspective, emphasizing the recognition and appreciation of otherness (Bonidis, 2004: 17).

A few years after its establishment, the Council of Europe incorporated the revision of school textbooks of the member states within its cultural agenda. Between 1953 and 1958, the Council organized six conferences in Germany, Norway, Italy, France, the Netherlands, and Turkey. These conferences primarily focused on the evaluation of school textbooks and teaching programs related to the teaching of history in member states. History was regarded as particularly significant “because of the effect it exerts on shaping the attitudes of young people towards other countries, races, and religions” (Bonidis, 2004, p. 26).

The Role of History Textbooks

History textbooks are expected to align with modern scientific and pedagogical advancements. However, as Agg. Palikidis (2013, p. 8) observes, contemporary history textbooks “are barely informed about the developments in the field of scientific historiography.” Specifically, they often fail to incorporate new epistemological approaches, instead adhering to an ethnocentric narrative rooted in positivist historiography (Kokkinos, 2003, p. 122).

In Greece, history textbooks are perceived as conveyors of official history and as vehicles for promoting the dominant ideology. Their production and distribution are strictly regulated by the Ministry of Education, which exercises significant control over their content (Palikidis, 2013, p. 9). Consequently, political shifts frequently influence the portrayal of history in schools.

Challenges in the Teaching of History

Students are often required to learn history through rote memorization of textbooks. This approach undermines the subject, reducing its teaching to a mechanistic process. As a result, students’ critical thinking, as well as their analytical and synthetic abilities, are diminished, and opportunities for meaningful engagement and constructive dialogue are lost (Palikidis, 2013, pp. 9-10).

More broadly, historical education in Greek schools fails to reflect the social changes occurring in Europe and globally. If it did, it would have adapted to the social realities of recent years, which, for Greece, notably include a significant rise in immigration (Koulouri, 2000, pp. 28-30; Kavvoura, 2011, pp. 33-37). Furthermore, the authors of school textbooks often exhibit selective memory in their portrayal of historical events. This selective approach occurs within the broader effort to emphasize national identity and reinforce the ethnocentric perspectives that dominate the teaching of history (Koulouri, 2000, pp. 28-30).

It is worth noting that, after 1990, Greek school textbooks underwent noticeable and positive changes concerning the portrayal of the “other,” largely due to criticism from organizations such as UNESCO (Milas, 2001). While the textbooks of the 1990s still exhibit elements of ethnocentrism, they no longer include strongly negative depictions of other peoples, as was often the case in older textbooks (Avdela, 1998).

A key factor influencing the content of school history textbooks is not the objective recording of historical truth, but their function as an ideological mechanism aimed at promoting national superiority. This is achieved not only through the idealized portrayal of the national self-image but also through the selective representation of “others” in ways that serve to reinforce the national identity. Often, this involves marginalizing or relegating the “other” to further emphasize the superiority of the national self (Avdela, 1998, pp. 159-160).

It is a common tactic to highlight national superiority by emphasizing the negative characteristics of other peoples. In some cases, this tactic also uses sources that lack historical reliability, such as philological sources. But these sources appear as historical events, as historical reality, causing confusion, especially for students who fail to understand the difference between fiction and historical research. This results in them considering that what is described in the fiction are historical events and have actually happened (Angelakos & Kokkinos, 2004: 135). The result of this approach is the creation of an emotionally charged narrative, particularly concerning the portrayal of the Greeks. This depiction not only deviates from the objectivity that should characterize historical narratives but often approaches the realm of the fantastic. Greeks are presented as a courageous people, with any past suffering—whether disasters or defeats—attributed solely to external forces, namely the “foreigners.” Moreover, Greeks are depicted as the originators of civilization, while other peoples are labeled as “barbarians.” This distinction is often exaggerated, reinforcing an idealized image of the Greeks in contrast to others (Koulouri, 1996, pp. 143-155).

As a result, history education often fosters and perpetuates prejudices, as it is tasked with “cultivating” national consciousness. To achieve this, the characteristics of the Greeks are consistently emphasized in comparison to those of other peoples, with the aim of showcasing their perceived superiority and reinforcing national pride among students. This approach leads to the silencing of the Greeks’ negative traits, while other peoples—particularly neighboring nations—are portrayed in a negative light. Such representations serve to further highlight the perceived differences and elevate the national image.

Editorial status of history school textbooks

When in 1937 the Organization for the Publication of Educational Books was founded (AN.N.952/37-Government Gazette 469 A), the absolute dependence of the school textbook on the state administration was officially established, both in terms of content and the ideology that it had to project (Palikidis, 2009:48). For the professor of pedagogy Polychronopoulos (1980: 473), it is an “invisible and effective mechanism that exercises social control”. In particular, the degree of centralization and authoritarianism of the government also determines the writing of school textbooks.

Based on the founding law, school textbooks are drawn up with a call for tenders. Until recently, the Ministry of Education announced a public competition, setting the conditions for the writing of the textbooks and, on the other hand, the monetary prizes for the first three books. The Supreme Council of Education judged the writings with the participation of a member of the Board of Directors of the Textbook Publishing Organization and chose the three best. These books, after the monetary prizes were paid to the authors, became the property of the Organization, which had the right to dispose of them as it saw fit. The circulation period for each textbook could not be “less than five years, and could be extended beyond that by a decision of the Minister” (Palikidis, 2009: 39).

During the period 1950-1976, these committees were formed and staffed directly by the Minister. For the years 1976-2000, the committees were initially composed and staffed by K.E.M.E. (1976-1985) and after that the Pedagogical Institute (1985-2000), i.e. by institutions managed by people trusted by the Minister (Palikidis, 2009: 49).

The respective Minister of Education effectively controls the process of publishing and writing school textbooks, since they are the ones who announce the competitions and select the authors who are assigned to write the books. This is because the members of the advisory bodies and the committees for the publication and approval of textbooks are, most of the time, persons chosen by the minister themselves and, consequently, are influenced by them (Noutsos, 1999: 162-163). Yes, there is a competition, but the committee that chooses the winners is under the influence of the respective minister.

Although the interventions of the Minister of Education in the work of the evaluation committees and the Pedagogical Institute were few, there was always the fear that the press, public opinion and the intellectual and educational world would react negatively to the books. Fear has often been a key criterion for the selection or rejection of History textbooks in the past, mainly after 2000, but also today, as will be seen below from reactions to school textbooks (Palikidis, 2009:49-50).

Today the authors of school textbooks are selected by the Institute of Computer Technology and Publications “DIOFANTOS” (ITIE – Diofantos) and specifically by the Directorate of Publications under Law 3966/2011.

The selection process for the committees responsible for history textbooks clearly reflects the government’s attempt to exert influence. Given the sensitive nature of history education and its role in cultivating national consciousness, efforts are made to present historical events in ways that avoid provoking public backlash. A characteristic example is the case of “Repoussi’s book,” which triggered intense reactions, leading to the matter being debated in the Hellenic Parliament. Notably, the controversy did not center on whether events, such as the Asia Minor Catastrophe, were accurately represented, but rather on the fact that the book challenged the way these events are traditionally embedded in Greek collective consciousness.

The public outcry was so significant that the book was promptly withdrawn, and Professor Ioannis Koliopoulos was commissioned to write a new history textbook aligned with the ideology of the ruling political party at the time. However, this decision also faced considerable criticism. A particularly notable reaction came from Professor Antonis Liakos, who condemned the Ministry of Education’s direct political intervention. Other critics accused Professor Koliopoulos of being a historian with conservative leanings, selected to counterbalance the reactions sparked by Ms. Repoussi’s work (Papamathaiou, 2008).

  From the aforementioned, it is clear that the writing of history textbooks is influenced by government policy and public opinion, which is shaped by social and political reality. The reactions of public opinion therefore exert a significant influence since they are able to even abolish a school textbook as was evident in the case of Ms. Repoussi.

Previous Research on the Representation of Balkan Peoples in School Textbooks

The research conducted by Nikos Achlis (1983) examines the portrayal of Turks and Bulgarians in Greek history textbooks. To achieve this objective, a content analysis was carried out on textbooks used in the 2nd and 3rd grades of Gymnasium and the 2nd and 3rd grades of Lyceum up to the years 1981 and 1982.

The study concluded that Turks and Bulgarians are depicted as hostile toward Greece, often characterized by negative traits that portray them as inferior to the Greeks, who are presented as a virtuous and exemplary people. Specifically, the research highlights that Turks are described as warmongering, arrogant, inhumane, and uncivilized (Achlis, 1983, p. 53).

Avdela’s research (1998:47), which does not examine the Balkan peoples but provides important information on ethnocentrism in education, concludes that school textbooks reflect the level of ethnocentrism of educational systems, while they are a privileged field for investigating the representations of a nation. Avdela conducted her study starting with the first syllabus of 1881 and reaching up to 1977.

Flouris and Ivideli (2000) sought to provide a comprehensive analysis of how the Balkan peoples are portrayed, not only in student history textbooks but also in teacher’s manuals and the syllabi for all subjects in Primary School from 1985 to 2000. Their research concluded that both the curricula and the educational materials for teachers and students are ethnocentric, despite the increased references to Balkan peoples.

The researchers found that Turks and Bulgarians are predominantly depicted in the context of wars and conflicts, where the Greeks are consistently portrayed as justified, while the “others” are shown as antagonistic or in the wrong. Additionally, they noted that references to the culture and contributions of the Balkan peoples are sparse and, when included, are often presented negatively (Flouris & Ivideli, 2000, pp. 246-247).

The research of Angelopoulos (2000) focused on the image of Bulgarians in Greek school textbooks from 1950 onwards and found that the neighbor-Other contributed to the emergence of Greek national identity by constituting the negative pole in key conflicting concepts such as: life or death, freedom or slavery, existence or disappearance, continuity or interruption (Angelopoulos, 2000:333).

The research of Koullapis (2000) investigated the image of the Turks and the Bulgarians in the Greek textbooks of the history of the 5th and 6th grades published in the second half of the 20th century. The research found that the image of the most important “Others” underwent various changes, presenting a more positive image, which are inextricably linked on the one hand with the interpretation of the past and, on the other hand, with Greece’s relations with Bulgaria and Turkey in second half of the 20th century (Koullapis, 2000: 370).

For Millas (2001: 303), who studied school textbooks between 1834-1914, the Turks appear barbaric and wild and are considered a great threat to the Greeks. The Bulgarians are also presented as an enemy people, but only the Turks appear as eternal enemies (Millas, 2001:303). Furthermore, Greeks and Turks are trained to be competitive and adversarial. The negative image of the Turks in history textbooks is directly related to the national identity of the Greeks. According to the author, “Turkish rule is a national metaphor that has taken root in the consciousness of the Greek people. […] It is identified with old popular traditions […] and achieves social consensus” (Millas, 2001:393).

  After 1990 and due to the pressure of international organizations, such as UNESCO, Greek textbooks present noticeable changes in relation to the image of the “other”, (Millas, 2001:307). However, according to Flouris and Ivideli (2000: 246-247, Millas, 2001:308) school textbooks still present historical events from a national perspective and do not encourage the creation of a spirit of universal awareness. In short, their perspective has not been freed from racial and ethnic stereotypes.

Conclusions

Textbook authors predominantly emphasize political and military history, which may explain the absence of references to the culture of other Balkan peoples. In contrast, various chapters extensively cover the culture, arts, and letters of Greece and Europe. Among the Balkan peoples, the Turks are the most frequently mentioned, consistently portrayed as a threat to the independence, cultural distinctiveness, and perceived superiority of the Greeks. The Bulgarians follow, though they are discussed in fewer instances, while the Serbs and Romanians are mentioned even less. Other Balkan peoples are not typically depicted as negatively as the Turks, though some cases of such portrayals do exist.

The Greek education system places particular emphasis on national history. Throughout the educational process, historical material is organized around a tripartite structure: ancient, Byzantine, and modern history. This approach is understandable, given that the history of the Greeks and the Greek state is a central focus of the curriculum.

Adam Papakonstantinou

Bibliography

1. Avdela, E. (1998). History and school. Athens: Nisos.
2. Angelakos, K. & Kokkinos, G. (2004). Intersubjectivity in the modern school and the teaching of history using sources. Athens: Metaichmio.
3. Angelopoulos, K. (2000). Proclaiming Greek national identity through dialectic in Greek secondary school textbooks from 1950 onwards” (319-334). In Kapsalis A., Bonidis K. & Sipitanou A. (eds.). The image of the “Other” / Neighbor in the textbooks of the Balkan countries. Athens: Print.
4. Achlis, N. (1983). Our neighboring peoples, Bulgarians and Turks, in Middle School and High School History textbooks. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers.
5. Bonidis, K. (2004). The content of the textbook as an object of research: longitudinal examination of the relevant research and methodological approaches. Athens: Metaichmio.
6. Flouris, G. & Ivideli, M. (2000). The image of our Balkan neighbors in the syllabus, textbooks and teacher’s books of the Greek Primary school. In Kapsalis, A., Bonidis, K. & Sipitanou A. (eds.). The image of the “Other” / Neighbor in the textbooks of the Balkan countries. Athens: Print.
7. Kavvoura, D. (2011). Teaching of History. Science, teaching, learning. Athens: Metaichmio.
8. Kokkinos, G. (2003). Science, ideology, identity. The lesson of History in the constellation of supranationalism and globalization. Athens: Metaichmio.
9. Koullapis, L. (2000). The image of Bulgarians and Turks in primary school History textbooks of the period 1950-90. In Kapsalis, A., Bonidis, K. & Sipitanou, A. (eds.). The image of the “Other” / Neighbor in the textbooks of the Balkan countries. Athens: Print.
10. Koulouri, X. (1996). Fanaticism, dogmatism, identity construction in the discourse of school textbooks. Memory 18(1996), 143-155.
11. Koulouri, C. (2000). The two faces of discrimination in History teaching: perpetrators and victims. In Council of Europe. The misuse of History. Symposium on Facing misuses of History (Oslo, 28-30 June 1999). Belgium: Council of Europe Publishing.
12. Millas, H. (2001). Images of Greeks and Turks. Textbooks, historiography, literature and national stereotypes. Athens: Alexandria.
13. Law 3966/2011. Institutional framework of the Model Experimental Schools, Establishment of the Institute of Educational Policy, Organization of the Institute of Computer Technology and Publications “DIOFANTOS” and other provisions. Gazette A 118/24.5.2011.
14. Noutsos, X. (1999). Secondary Education programs and social control (1931-1973). Athens: Foundation.
15. Palikidis, A.A. (2009). The Role of Image in Secondary School History Textbooks (1950-2002). Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis.
16. Palikidis, A.A. (2013). Critical approaches to the Nazi phenomenon. From historiography and political theory to school historical learning. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers.
17. Papamathaiou, M. (2008). They are rewriting history on a national level. The Step, 01/06.

Nikiforos Vrettakos (January 1, 1912 – August 4, 1991) stands as a towering figure in modern Greek literature. A poet, novelist, translator, essayist, and academic, he is widely regarded as one of Greece’s greatest poets. His works are profoundly dialogic, rooted in his unwavering love for nature, life, and humanity.

While he pursued various professions, poetry remained his life’s essence. Reflecting on his dedication, he wrote: “In poetry, I gave my soul. And while I may not be certain that I am a poet, I know now that I am nothing else.” His optimistic tone and deep compassion for both people and the natural world permeated his work. Over his lifetime, he published numerous collections and earned prestigious national poetry awards. He was affectionately hailed as “The Saint of Greek Poetry” and received an Honorary Doctorate in Literature from the University of Athens. He was also nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature.

The military coup in Greece in April 1967 prompted Vrettakos to embark on a seven-year self-imposed exile. During this period, he resided at the Pestalozzi International Children’s Village in Switzerland and later lectured at the University of Palermo in Italy. His exile produced some of his most intimate and powerful works, including “The Rock and the Hawk,” “Journey to Sicily,” and his reflective testament, “The Seven Elegies.”

With the restoration of democracy in 1974, he returned to Greece and entered one of the most productive phases of his career. Vrettakos continued to write prolifically until his death on August 4, 1991, leaving behind a rich legacy of poetic and humanistic contributions.

Vrettakos crafted his poetic universe with sincerity, moral integrity, and resilience. His work intertwined the beauty of nature with the trials of the human condition, reflecting both the misery and dreams of ordinary people. His verses resonate with themes of love, protest, pain, and hope, often portraying Greece’s historical struggles while holding steadfast to visions of peace and social progress.

Nature was his sanctuary and muse. Vrettakos juxtaposed the order and harmony found in the natural world with the chaos and disorder of society. Yet, for him, this contrast did not signify conflict but a call for inspiration and redemption. Nature’s lessons on balance and perseverance informed his moral vision and artistic drive.

Vrettakos often described nature as a sacred text. In “Evening Confessions,” he writes that the slopes of Mount Taygetos were “the first poem I read as I opened my eyes.” Similarly, in “The Horizon and the Stone,” he likens the sky to a divine tablet, saying, “this God-engraved tablet / I’ve gradually learned to decipher.” His act of poetic creation was an act of submission to the earth’s majesty, as he beautifully articulates in “Seminar”: “teach me the light,” he pleads with the flowers.

In solitude, he found the space to “mend and make” the world through his poetry, as captured in “The Sledge,” where the burden of night must be navigated through a vast expanse of snow. His evocative imagery, such as the frozen eagle in “An Eagle,” symbolizes his quest for meaning and existential grounding:

Poised like an eagle,
I stand above the world
one claw in the snow,
the other in the clouds,
immovable, white.
My crested head a stone outcrop.
My eyes two blizzards.

Rooted in his faith in nature’s order, Vrettakos found the courage to confront societal injustice. His poetry was marked by quiet determination, steadfastness, and fearlessness, addressing themes of war, fascism, tyranny, and occupation with unrelenting honesty. Whether under the sun or in the shadow of oppression, his voice remained unwavering in its commitment to truth.

Vrettakos’s spiritual worldview transcended religious dogma, blending Christian and pagan influences into a profound appreciation for the sacredness of existence. The sun, a central symbol in his work, was neither a Christian nor a pagan entity but an embodiment of life itself. It represented vitality, creative energy, and eternal renewal. In poems such as “The Green Garden” and “Infusion,” the sun is a force that connects humanity to the divine essence of the universe.

At the core of Vrettakos’s poetic philosophy was the belief that humanity must restore its long-lost connection with nature and the cosmos. He saw this unity as essential to realizing our potential and fostering harmony in the world. His poetry calls for the rediscovery of humanity’s role within the greater rhythm of creation.

Nikiforos Vrettakos’s poetry is a testament to the power of simplicity, authenticity, and moral clarity. His verses, often infused with bucolic imagery and metaphors drawn from the natural world, serve as a beacon of hope and a call for renewal. His legacy is one of profound beauty and enduring relevance, offering inspiration to those who seek harmony, justice, and a deeper understanding of life’s sacredness.

Dr. Sofia Skleida

REFERENCES

Αδαμόπουλος Χ.,  Ένας διάλογος για τον άνθρωπο : Δέκα αναφορές στον ψυχισμό και στα οράματα του ποιητή Νικηφόρου Βρεττάκου, Οι εκδόσεις των φίλων, Αθήνα  1986.

Βρεττάκος Ν.,  Αυτοβιογραφικά, Φέξης, Αθήνα 1961.

Βρεττάκος Ν.,   Μελέτες για το έργο του,  Διογένης, Αθήνα 1976.

Γκότοβος Θ., Το μυθικό και ιδεολογικό σύμπαν της ποίησης του Νικηφόρου Βρεττάκου,  Φιλιππότης, Αθήνα 1989.

Γκότοβος Α.Ν., Για το Νικηφόρο Βρεττάκο έξι μελετήματα, Σοκόλης, Αθήνα 1995.

Glotfelty C. &   Fromm H.,   The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, University of Georgia 1996.

Iovino S., Ecocriticism and Italy: Ecology, Resistance, and Liberation , Bloomsbury Academic, 2016.

Καραντώνης Α., «Νικηφόρος Βρεττάκος», Η ποίησή μας μετά τον Σεφέρη, Δωδώνη, Αθήνα 1976.

Καψωμένος Ε.,  «Κοσμολογικές διαστάσεις της ποιητικής μυθολογίας», Πρακτικά διεθνούς συμποσίου για τον Νικηφόρο Βρεττάκο, Αθήνα 2004.

Turi N., Ecosistemi Letterari. Luoghi e Paesaggi nella Finzione Novecentesca , Firenze UP 2016.

Φράιερ Κ.,  Σύγχρονη ελληνική ποίηση, από τον Καβάφη στο Βρεττάκο, Κέδρος, Αθήνα 1982.

About the Author

Sofia Skleida was born in Athens. She studied Philology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens where she obtained her BA, MA in Pedagogy, Ph.D in Comparative Pedagogy and a postdoctoral research certificate. She also obtained a certification in the Braille language. Today she works as a teacher in secondary education. She took part in conferences and published articles in the Greek and international scientific journals and in conference papers. She was awarded for her participation in poetry and literary contests in Greece and abroad. Her poems have been translated into Italian, English, Spanish, Albanian, Romanian and Bangla. She has published a total of twenty books. She is Vice-President of the Zakynthian Cultural Institute, Member of the jury for new members of the Association of Greek Writers, a regular member at the Panhellenic Union of Writers and at the Association of Greek Writers.

Throughout history, religion has been an intrinsic part of the cultural and social fabric of human civilizations. Each religion is born within a specific geographical and sociocultural context, shaped by the needs, values, and conditions of the environment from which it emerges. Over time, many religions have spread across boundaries, either through peaceful dissemination or, in other cases, through more assertive means of expansion. One of the most compelling aspects of this spread is how a religion, when transplanted into a new region, may conflict with the indigenous culture, practices, and traditions of that region. This article explores the impacts of religious expansion on local cultures, with a particular focus on Islam and its expansion across diverse territories. In so doing, it addresses the nuanced challenges arising from the imposition of a distinct socio-cultural system onto new lands and the effects this has on indigenous ways of life, including dietary habits, legal structures, and societal values.

1. Religious Origins and Their Geographic and Cultural Roots

Every major religion bears the imprint of the geography, climate, and societal structure of the region from which it originated. For instance, Hinduism reflects the deeply spiritual traditions of ancient India, incorporating elements from its vast landscapes and complex caste-based society. Buddhism similarly emerged as a reformative response to Hindu practices, while Christianity took root in the Roman world, addressing the spiritual and ethical concerns of that era.

Islam, which originated in the harsh deserts of the Arabian Peninsula, embodies characteristics tailored to the Bedouin and Meccan cultures. Certain elements of its moral, social, and legal framework reflect the survival instincts and socio-political structures necessary for desert life, emphasizing community solidarity, strict codes of conduct, and specific guidelines around war, trade, and social interactions.

The issue arises when these regionally specific systems travel beyond their point of origin and are imposed in settings vastly different from the Arabian Peninsula, as has been the case throughout Islam’s history.

2. The Spread of Islam and Its Mechanisms of Expansion

Historically, Islam spread across the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, and parts of Europe and India, often through a blend of trade, proselytization, and conquest. In many cases, local cultures were expected to adapt to Islamic principles, which included Sharia—a legal system rooted in 7th-century Arabian customs and ethics.

The imposition of such a system presents several challenges. Sharia addresses various aspects of daily life, including family relations, social behavior, dietary restrictions, and legal judgments. While these laws were practical and aligned with the Arabian way of life, they often conflicted with the indigenous legal and social norms of other regions. Furthermore, practices such as the enforcement of specific dress codes, the consumption of certain foods, and rituals for prayer and fasting are tied to the desert climate, which may not always be suitable or necessary in vastly different regions.

3. Cultural Erosion and Religious Dominance

The issue of religious dominance poses a significant risk to the indigenous culture of any region. When a dominant religion imposes its beliefs and practices on a new land, it often results in the erosion of local customs, values, and even languages. This is particularly impactful in cultures with rich histories, where beliefs and rituals are deeply interwoven with daily life, art, language, and cuisine.

In many regions, as Islam expanded, it introduced cultural practices specific to Arabia and sought to establish them as the norm. For instance, the dietary guidelines in Islam, such as the preference for specific foods and prohibitions against others, are closely tied to the climate and resources of the Arabian Peninsula. These food customs, when imposed in regions with vastly different agricultural practices, can disrupt local dietary health and cultural traditions. Traditional meals that were balanced for the local climate may be replaced by those unsuited to the health needs of the local population.

Additionally, the introduction of Islamic laws that affect dress, marital practices, and social interactions can clash with the established norms of other cultures. Such changes not only alter the visible aspects of culture but can also impact the underlying social fabric, which may have evolved over centuries to suit the unique needs and ethos of the indigenous community.

4. Legal and Social Impositions: Sharia in Non-Islamic Societies

One of the most challenging aspects of Islamic expansion is the imposition of Sharia in regions where indigenous legal systems already exist. Sharia encompasses not only religious obligations but also civil and criminal laws, which regulate everything from marriage and inheritance to penal codes. When implemented in non-Islamic societies, Sharia can disrupt existing legal systems, potentially creating tensions between the two.

For example, Islamic law places specific emphasis on gender roles, which might conflict with societies that have traditionally valued egalitarian or matriarchal structures. Issues like polygamy, gender-based inheritance rights, and restrictions on freedom of expression may be perceived as repressive in societies where women hold equal or even superior roles within the community.

Moreover, Sharia’s punitive measures, such as those related to theft or apostasy, may starkly contrast with the rehabilitative or less severe approaches of other legal systems. The clash of legal frameworks can create social divisions, as those who support traditional practices resist the perceived encroachment of foreign laws.

5. The Health Implications of Imported Dietary Laws

Food is not just sustenance; it is a cultural identifier deeply rooted in the environmental context of a region. Islamic dietary laws, such as restrictions on pork and the mandatory halal preparation of meat, originated in a hot, arid environment where food preservation was challenging and certain meats were considered unclean. While these laws serve a religious and cultural purpose, their imposition in non-Muslim regions can pose health challenges.

Regions with cold climates, for instance, often rely on pork as a staple protein source due to its availability and nutritional value. The forced exclusion of such meats in these areas can disrupt traditional dietary balance, which may have evolved to provide optimal nutrition in that environment. Additionally, the dietary emphasis on lamb and goat meat, more suited to arid climates, may prove unsustainable or less beneficial in other regions where alternative sources of protein are culturally ingrained and environmentally optimal.

Furthermore, fasting during Ramadan—while deeply meaningful for practicing Muslims—may have adverse health effects in regions with extreme seasonal variations in daylight. In polar regions, for example, the long periods of daylight or darkness pose practical challenges to fasting from sunrise to sunset, potentially endangering the health of individuals attempting to observe these practices strictly.

6. Preserving Indigenous Cultures Amid Religious Expansion

As Islam and other religions continue to grow and establish footholds globally, a pressing challenge remains: how to preserve the cultural identity of indigenous groups. Religious tolerance and cultural preservation must go hand in hand to prevent the erosion of traditions and values that give a region its distinct identity. In places where Islam has become dominant, there are lessons to be learned about respecting local customs and adapting religious practices to harmonize with, rather than overshadow, the indigenous culture.

A balanced approach would involve acknowledging the importance of each culture’s unique characteristics and refraining from imposing rigid, foreign customs onto societies with different historical, climatic, and social needs. Such respect for local culture does not only protect diversity but fosters a more inclusive world where multiple belief systems coexist without undermining one another.

Religious expansion, while often motivated by the desire to spread faith and community, carries with it complex challenges when it involves the imposition of one culture over another. Islam, which has historically sought to establish a cohesive religious and socio-legal system, is a prominent example of how religious growth can affect indigenous cultures in both positive and adverse ways. Recognizing the socio-cultural and environmental origins of each religion provides valuable insights into the importance of respecting regional distinctions when introducing religious practices into new territories.

For a harmonious coexistence, there must be an understanding that no single culture or religion holds universal solutions for all societies. Only through mutual respect for diversity can humanity build a world where religious conviction and cultural heritage support, rather than supplant, one another.

Preeth Padmanabhan Nambiar
Author, Educationist & Humanitarian

References

1. Bulliet, R. W. (1979). Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History. Harvard University Press.
2. Esposito, J. L. (2003). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press.
3. Geertz, C. (1968). Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. University of Chicago Press.
4. Lapidus, I. M. (2002). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press.
5. Rippin, A. (2005). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge.
6. Kymlicka, W., & Norman, W. (2000). Citizenship in Diverse Societies. Oxford University Press.
7. Bowen, J. R. (2003). Islam, Law, and Equality in Indonesia: An Anthropology of Public Reasoning. Cambridge University Press.
8. Denny, F. M. (1994). An Introduction to Islam. Macmillan.
9. Nielsen, J. S. (1999). Towards a European Islam. Macmillan.
10. Kuran, T. (2004). Islam and Mammon: The Economic Predicaments of Islamism. Princeton University Press.
11. Eickelman, D. F., & Piscatori, J. (1996). Muslim Politics. Princeton University Press.
12. Nasr, S. H. (2002). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. HarperOne.

About the Author

Preeth Padmanabhan Nambiar, (born 27 August 1978), is a distinguished Indian poet, educationist, and humanitarian who has significantly influenced the literary and educational spheres. Founder and CEO of Writers Capital International Foundation, Nambiar has advanced humanitarian values across 78 countries, and he serves as Permanent Councillor for the International Council for Diplomacy and Justice in Italy. Rooted in Kerala’s cultural richness, his mystical poetry and reflective short stories explore themes of nature, life, and humanity. Notable works include The Voyage to Eternity, Solitary Shores, and Songs Ethereal. His educational contributions extend internationally, including a role as Department Head of English at the University of Cambridge in the Maldives. A visionary advocate for cultural unity, Nambiar’s Foundation hosts global literary festivals and promotes causes like minimalism and compassion towards animals. 

 

Among the foremost figures of Greece’s poetic renaissance in the 1930s, three gained international renown. Both George Seferis (1900-1971) and Odysseas Elytis (1911-1979) received the Nobel Prize in Literature, while the works of Yannis Ritsos (1900-1990) were widely translated.  Nikiforos Vrettakos (1912-1991), though recognized within Greece and translated abroad, remains relatively unknown in the English-speaking world.

“I like to begin where winds shake the first branch.”  

Odysseas Elytis, Open Papers

Odysseas Elytis, born on November 2, 1911, in Heraklion, Crete, was relatively obscure outside Greece when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1979. Although the Swedish Academy had previously honored lesser-known writers such as Eugenio Montale, Vicente Aleixandre, and Harry Martison, its selection of Elytis was nonetheless surprising. In its presentation, the Academy commended his poetry as one that “depicts with sensual strength and intellectual clearsightedness, modern man’s struggle for freedom and creativity.” Elytis’s verse, distinctively personal and deeply reflective of Greek traditions, embraces themes that resonate with a broader humanism.

Elytis applied elements of surrealism selectively, adapting them to fit the Greek landscape and sensibility. His frequent use of free association allowed him to reveal the essence of objects in both their “reality” and their “surreality.” This stylistic choice is evident in his works, where, for instance, a young girl becomes a fruit, a landscape takes on the shape of a human body, and the ambiance of a morning morphs into the form of a tree. 

As Elytis himself stated, “I have always been preoccupied with finding the analogies between nature and language in the realm of imagination, a realm to which the surrealists also gave much importance, and rightly so… Everything depends on imagination, that is, on the way a poet sees the same phenomenon as you do, yet differently from you.”

One of Elytis’s best-known verses captures the essence of his poetic vision: “If you disintegrate Greece, in the end you will see that you are left with an olive tree, a vineyard and a boat. Which means: with so much more you can rebuild it.”

“But you must know that only he who fights the darkness within will the day after tomorrow have his own share in the sun.”  

Odysseas Elytis, The Axion Esti

Elytis’s vision of an individual “paradise” speaks volumes about his worldview: “If a separate personal Paradise exists for each of us, mine must be irreparably planted with trees of words which the wind silvers like poplars, by people who see their confiscated justice given back, and by birds that even in the midst of the truth of death insist on singing in Greek and saying eros, eros, eros.”

Simple yet profound, Elytis’s words often reflect an appreciation for the beauty in the everyday:  

“I can become happy with the simplest things the most insignificant even the every day ones of every day. It is sufficient for me that weeks have Sundays and I am satisfied that years keep their Christmas for the very end, that winters have stone houses dipped in snow, that I know how to discover the hidden bitter herbs in their hiding places. It is enough for me that four people love me a lot… It is enough for me that I love four people a lot that I spend my breath on them alone; that I am not afraid to remember; that I do not care if they remember me; that I can still cry and that I even sing sometimes… that there is music which fascinates me and fragrances that enchant me…”

Through his poetry, Elytis sought to instill hope and optimism, encouraging his compatriots with his vision of renewal, both personal and spiritual. His perspective—a blend of poetic reverence and moral clarity—drew inspiration from Greek cultural roots, referencing figures such as Sappho and Heraclitus. This approach set him apart from the prevailing mood of pessimism that pervaded much of his era.

As a leading voice of Greece’s “generation of the thirties,” Elytis’s work straddles the tension between Greek tradition and European modernism. His first collection, Prosanatolizmi (Orientations), published in 1936, won him recognition as the “sun-drinking poet” for its vivid imagery of light and purity.

Elytis paused his literary work to serve in World War II, fighting in the Albanian Campaign against Mussolini’s forces with the First Army Corps. The harrowing experiences of this period left their mark on him, later inspiring the poem A Heroic and Elegiac Song of the Lost Second Lieutenant of the Albanian Campaign.

In 1959, after a decade-long silence, Elytis published The Axion Esti, a major work structured as a poetic cycle interweaving prose and verse, modeled after the Byzantine liturgy. This work, like much of his poetry, presents the Greek experience through a lens that is intensely personal yet deeply rooted in cultural heritage.

“Your mouth speaks with four hundred roses, beats the trees, overwhelms the entire earth, pours the first shiver into the body.”

Reflecting on his literary mission in Books Abroad, Elytis remarked: “I consider poetry a source of innocence full of revolutionary forces. It is my mission to direct these forces against a world my conscience cannot accept, precisely so as to bring that world through continual metamorphoses more in harmony with my dreams. I am referring here to a contemporary kind of magic whose mechanism leads to the discovery of our true reality.”

Dr. Sofia Skleida

REFERENCES

Αφιέρωμα στον Οδυσσέα Ελύτη,  Περιοδικό «Νέα Εστία» τ. Απριλίου 1997.

Βίττι Μ.,  Οδυσσέας Ελύτης: Βιβλιογραφία 1935-1971(συνεργασία Αγγελικής Γαβαθά), Ίκαρος, Αθήνα 1977.

Bressler C., Literary criticism: an introduction to theory and practice, (a second printing), March 2011. 

Κουτριάνου Ε.,  Με άξονα το φως: Η διαμόρφωση και η κρυστάλλωση της ποιητικής του Οδυσσέα Ελύτη, Ίδρυμα Κώστα και Ελένης Ουράνη, Αθήνα 2002.

Μπελεζίνης Α.,  Ο όψιμος Ελύτης, Ίκαρος, Αθήνα 1999.

Συλλογικό έργο, Δεκαέξι κείμενα για το Άξιον Εστί, Ίκαρος, Αθήνα 2001.

Timothy C.,  The Cambridge Introduction to Literature and the Environment, Cambridge UP. p. 2. ISBN 9780521720908,  New York 2011.  

Vitti Μ.,  Οδυσσέας Ελύτης. Κριτική μελέτη, Ερμής, Αθήνα 1991. 

Χατζηγιακουμή Μ.,  Η υπέρβαση της ιστορίας στο έργο του Οδυσσέα Ελύτη,  Ελληνικά Γράμματα, Αθήνα 2004.

 

Περίληψη

Θνητές και θεές, πλούσιες και φτωχές, ελεύθερες και σκλάβες, οι γυναίκες στα ομηρικά έπη έχουν έναν κοινό παρονομαστή:  κινούν οι ίδιες, φανερά ή κρυφά, τα νήματα στη ζωή των αντρών κι έχουν περισσότερη ελευθερία από τις γυναίκες των κλασικών χρόνων.   Τα πορτρέτα τους συγκροτούνται από τα κύρια χαρακτηριστικά και την όλη δράση τους, συνθέτοντας έναν καμβά γεμάτο δράση, δυναμισμό και αρετές.  Μελετώντας δε προσεκτικά τα δύο έπη, παρατηρούμε ότι οι πολεμικές σκηνές εναλλάσσονται με τις ειρηνικές κι ανθρώπινες σκηνές, ο δε ηρωισμός, εκτός από το πεδίο της μάχης, αφορά και την ίδια τη ζωή σε όλες τις εκφάνσεις της, αναδεικνύοντας έτσι τον εξαίρετο ομηρικό ανθρωπισμό. Από την πλούσια πινακοθήκη, λοιπόν, του Ομήρου ας σταθούμε σε δύο ξεχωριστές γυναικείες μορφές στην Ιλιάδα: την Εκάβη και την Ανδρομάχη.

Εκάβη και Ανδρομάχη: στις φλόγες του πολέμου

Εισαγωγή

Η Εκάβη και η Ανδρομάχη έχουν απασχολήσει ανά τους αιώνες και τη λογοτεχνία και την τέχνη γενικότερα. Τις συναντάμε στην Ιλιάδα, στις τραγωδίες «Εκάβη» και «Τρωάδες» του Ευριπίδη,  σε πίνακες ζωγραφικής,  σε κινηματογραφικές ταινίες,   στη μουσική. Μάνες κι οι δυο, αγωνιούν για τα αγαπημένα τους πρόσωπα, χάνουν αγαπημένα πρόσωπα, θρηνούν, διαμαρτύρονται, αλλά η μοίρα κι η ζωή τις τραβούν από το χέρι να σταθούν όρθιες και να προχωρήσουν. 

Εκάβη

Μάνα περήφανη και ταυτόχρονα τραγική. «Ευτεκνοτάτην πασών γυναικών δυστυχεστάτην τε» , την παρουσιάζει ο Όμηρος.    Τη συναντάμε πρώτη φορά  στη ραψωδία Ζ της Ιλιάδας, όταν ο ορνιομάντης Έλενος συμβουλεύει τον Έκτορα να ζητήσει «μητέρα ση και εμή» να προσευχηθεί μαζί με τις αρχόντισσες στο ναό της Αθηνάς στην κορυφή του κάστρου και να προσφέρει πεπλοφόρο ανάθημα στη γλαυκομάτα κόρη. Έτσι, τις δύσκολες πολεμικές ώρες που το μάχιμο των ανδρών βρίσκεται στις επάλξεις υπερασπιζόμενο το κάστρο, η πρωτομάνα του Ιλίου, Εκάβη, γεμάτη έγνοια και  τρόμο για την επικείμενη καταστροφή και σφαγή, τρέχει βιαστικά, «μετασσεύεται», και οδηγεί την πολυάριθμη πομπή των αρχοντισσών στο ναό της Αθηνάς για να προσφέρουν δώρα και να προσευχηθούν για να σωθεί η πατρίδα. 

Στη ραψωδία Χ, η Εκάβη, δίπλα στο γέρο-Πρίαμο, επάνω στο κάστρο, απλώνει τα χέρια της και παρακαλεί τον Έκτορα, δείχνοντας του τα γυμνά μητρικά της στήθη που τον θήλασαν και του χάρισαν τη ζωή, να μπει μέσα από τις Πύλες, για να κρυφτεί από τον επιθετικό Αχιλλέα.  Ο Έκτορας, όμως, δεν ακούει τον αβάστακτο πόνο της απελπισμένης μάνας. Έτσι  ο Αχιλλέας μπροστά στα μάτια των γονιών του κάτω από τα τείχη της ανεμόδαρτης Τροίας σκοτώνει ανίερα τον γενναίο Έκτορα. Η τραγική μάνα βλέπει από μακριά το νεκρό γιο της, που σέρνεται πίσω από το άρμα του νικητή.  Ο πόνος μεγάλος κι ο θρήνος, απλός και λιγόλογος, χωρίς παροξυσμούς και υστερικές εκφράσεις, κρύβει όλο το μητρικό σπαραγμό.

«Παιδί μου τι να ζω η τρίσμοιρη, τέτοιο κακό που με ΄βρε με το χαμό σου τώρα. 

Κι ήσουνα για μένα το καμάρι, μέρα και νύχτα μες στο κάστρο μας και σε όλους μας η σκέπη» 

                                                                                                                                                          Χ 431-433

Διαφωνεί με την απόφαση του Πρίαμου να επισκεφθεί τα αργίτικα καράβια, για να ζητήσει από τον Αχιλλέα το νεκρό Έκτορα, γιατί φοβάται το χειρότερο. Ο Πρίαμος έχει ήδη πάρει την απόφασή του, γιατί ο Δίας του έστειλε εντολή με τη θεά Ιριδα. Απευθύνεται όμως με σεβασμό στην Εκάβη, ζητώντας τη γνώμη της:. 

«Αλλ΄ άγε μοι τόδε ειπέ, τι τοι φρεσίν είδεται είναι;» / «Αλλά έλα τώρα, πες μου, τι νομίζεις μέσα στο λογισμό σου να είναι;» Ω 197

Ο θρήνος της Εκάβης για το νεκρό ΄Εκτορα που έφερε πίσω ο Πρίαμος από τα αργίτικα καράβια είναι η τελευταία της παρουσία στα Ομηρικά έπη.  Στέκεται δίπλα στην Ανδρομάχη κι αφήνει ξέφρενο το ξέσπασμά του πόνου της με το σπαρακτικό της μοιρολόγι: 

«Έκτορα εσύ που απ’  όλους πιότερο τους γιους μου σε αγαπούσα 

όσο μου ζούσες, πριν οι αθάνατοι σού είχαν περίσσεια αγάπη». 

                                                                                                        Ω 748-749 

Η Εκάβη στην Ιλιάδα συμβολίζει τη γυναίκα που γερνάει και, καθώς η τύχη αναποδογυρίζει τα συμβάντα της ζωής και τα φορτώνει στους δύσμοιρους θνητούς, φτάνει στα πιο δυσβάστακτα βάσανα. Είδε τη χώρα της να καταστρέφεται, το γέρο-Πρίαμο να θανατώνεται, τα παιδιά της να χάνουν τη ζωή τους στη μάχη, τον εγγονό της Αστυάνακτα να τον γκρεμίζουν από τα τείχη της κατακτημένης πόλης οι Αχαιοί.   Το τέλος της δίνεται από την ομώνυμη τραγωδία του Ευριπίδη. Εκτός από την ομώνυμη τραγωδία του Ευριπίδη, η Εκάβη εμφανίζεται ως πρόσωπο και στις Τρωάδες του ίδιου ποιητή. Επίσης, αναφέρεται στην «Κόλαση» του Δάντη (ΧΧΧ 13-20) να παραφρονεί όταν βλέπει τα παιδιά της Πολυξένη και Πολύδωρο νεκρά, από τον Σαίξπηρ στον Άμλετ (πράξη 2, σκηνή 2) και από τον Καντ στην «Κριτική του καθαρού λόγου».

Ανδρομάχη

Η Ανδρομάχη, κόρη του Ηετίωνα, βασιλιά της Κιλικίας, και σύζυγος του Έκτορα, είναι από τις συμπαθέστερες μορφές της Ιλιάδας. Αποτελεί σύμβολο αφοσιωμένης συζύγου και φιλόστοργης μητέρας. Σκιαγραφείται στολισμένη με εξαιρετικές χάρες, γυναικεία τρυφερότητα, ευγένεια, σεμνότητα, συζυγική πίστη, θέρμη, αφοσίωση, υπακοή, πραότητα. Είναι υπόδειγμα γυναικείας μορφής που συνέδεσε με απόφαση και συνέπεια τη γυναικεία μοίρα με την ανδρική και που θα ζήσει στιγμές τραγικές με απερίγραπτη δυστυχία. 

Πρωτοεμφανίζεται στη ραψωδία Ζ, όταν ο λαμπροκρανοσείστης Έκτορας γυρίζει στον οίκο του για την «άλοχον φίλην» και το μικρό παιδί τους, επειδή δε γνωρίζει αν θα τους ξαναδεί ή θα τον τσακίσουν οι θεοί στων Αχαιών τα χέρια. Αλλά  η πρόθυμη κελλάρισσα τον πληροφορεί: 

«στο μέγα πύργο ανέβηκε σαν άκουσε οι δικοί μας πως τσάκισαν, 

κι οι Αργίτες έχουνε τρανή κερδέψει νίκη». 

                                                                      Ζ 386-387 

 Μαζί με άλλες Τρωαδίτισες που πλημμυρίζουν τις πύλες και τα κάστρα,  παρακολουθεί με αγωνία τους- κυνηγημένους από τους Αχαιούς- Τρώες. Μόλις αντικρίζει τον Έκτορα, τρέχει να τον φτάσει.  Βλέποντας τα αγαπημένα του πρόσωπα, η όψη του αντρόκαρδου γλυκαίνει. Όλη η σκληράδα του πολέμου ξεθωριάζει και χάνεται, καθώς κοιτάζει το βλαστάρι του. Δίπλα του η Ανδρομάχη «δάκρυχέουσα», του κρατά σφιχτά το χέρι και του λέει τρυφερά: 

«Από την ορμή την ίδια σου θα βρεις το θάνατό σου και το μωρό σου δε σπλαχνίζεσαι κι ουδέ τη μαύρη εμένα Ζ 408-409 … 

Μα αν είναι να σε χάσω ν’ ανοίξει η γη να μπω καλύτερα χίλιες φορές». Ζ 410-411

«Φθίσει το σον μένος/Θα σε καταστρέψει η τόση σου ορμή», τονίζει και είναι σα να προμαντεύει με τη δύναμη της γυναικείας της διαίσθησης ένα τραγικό τέλος που τρέμει και απεύχεται,  γι’ αυτό και προσπαθεί με κάθε τρόπο να τον μεταπείσει. Με κλάματα τον ικετεύει να μη ριψοκινδυνεύει τη ζωή του. Δάκρυα, τρυφερότητα, λύπηση και συμπόνια, κακό προαίσθημα, ταπεινή παράκληση και συμβουλές αντιτάσσει στη διαφαινόμενη σκληρή του απόφαση. Δεν «ελεαίρεις» το παιδί σου; Δεν το λυπάσαι; «Ουδέ εμέ ελεαίρεις;». Την ακριβή «άλοχο;» Γιατί κανείς δε μου μένει πια, αφ’ ότου «ο αρχοντογεννημένος Αχιλλέας εκπόρθησε το μυριοπλούσιο κάστρο της χώρας των Κιλίκων» ούτε γονείς, ούτε αδελφοί. 

 «Έκτορα, τώρα εσύ πατέρας μου και σεβαστή μου μάνα κι αδέρφι, εσύ και λεβεντόκορμος στην κλίνη σύντροφός μου». Ζ 429-430  

Γεμάτη έγνοια και συγκατάβαση η απόκρισή του Έκτορα δεν περιέχει συγκατάνευση στην προτροπή και στις συμβουλές της, παρά μόνο προμαντεύει τη μοίρα της μετά το χαμό του.

«Κι εγώ όλα τούτα τα στοχάζομαι, καλή μου, αλήθεια» Ζ 441 

«Μα τόσο για των Τρώων δε νοιάζομαι τα πάθη οπού και νά΄ρθουν.» Ζ 450 

«Κι ουδέ για την Εκάβη νοιάζομαι και για τον Πρίαμο τόσο. Όσο για σένα, όταν χαλκάρματος κάποιος Αργίτης πάρει τη λευτεριά σου· και ξοπίσω του σε σέρνει δακρυσμένη». Ζ 454-456 

«Τι έλειψε αυτός που δε θα σ’ άφηνε να σκλαβωθείς ποτέ σου. Μα κάλλιο να μη ζω, να βρίσκομαι βαθιά στη γη χωσμένος το σούρσιμό σου και το σκούξιμο προτού στα αυτιά μου φτάσουν». Ζ 459-461 

Την μοναδική τούτη ώρα του ζευγαριού που ο θάνατος παραμονεύει να εξοντώσει τον πατέρα και, μετά από την υποθήκη του που ως αξετέλεστο χρέος αφήνει στο γιο του ο Έκτορας, να γίνει δηλαδή ο Αστυάνακτας τρανός και περίλαμπρος, απιθώνει στο μυρωδάτο κόρφο της μάνας Ανδρομάχης το μικρό· «αλόχοιο φίλης εν χερσίν έθηκε», ως άλλη παρακαταθήκη της ευθύνης της μητέρας για το παιδί τους.  Αυτό υποδηλώνει την εμπιστοσύνη του προς το πρόσωπό της. Καθώς η Ανδρομάχη τον κοιτάζει, γελώντας δακρυσμένη, «δακρυόεν γελάσασα», προσπαθεί να την παρηγορήσει με λόγια τρυφερά. 

«Άμοιρη εσύ, μη μου πικραίνεσαι μες την καρδιά σου τόσο κανείς αν δεν το στέργει η μοίρα του, στον Άδη δε με στέλνει Ζ 486-487 Μόν΄ τώρα εσύ στο σπίτι πήγαινε και τις δουλειές σου κοίτα, Ζ 490 . .. τον πόλεμο θα τον κοιτάξουν οι άντρες». Ζ 492 

Σαν κυνηγημένη τρέχει η Ανδρομάχη στο  αρχοντικό του ΄Εκτορα, κι όλοι πίσω της κοιτάζει, βουτηγμένη στα δάκρυα.  Στη γαλήνη  της ομηρικής οικίας,  υφαίνει στον αργαλειό της και  πλέκει τη γλυκιά επιστροφή του. Αμέριμνη κι ήρεμη πια, μακριά από τις ιαχές του πολέμου και τον θόρυβο των μαχών, προστάζει τις δουλεύτρες της να ετοιμάσουν θερμό λουτρό για τον πρωτομαχητή της Τροίας. Οι φωνές όμως που ακούγονται από το κάστρο την αναστατώνουν. Από τον Μεγάλο Πύργο η Εκάβη θρηνεί και σκούζει. Το μήνυμα της καταστροφής φτάνει με απελπισία στα αυτιά της· και  τα γόνατά της λύνονται· «χαμαί δ΄ έπεσεν κερκίς», της έπεσε κάτω η σαΐτα του αργαλειού που ύφαινε. Ορμά στο κάστρο με καρδιά που πάλλεται από αγωνία, γεμάτη τρόμο για την τύχη του Έκτορα. Κοιτώντας ολόγυρα με πόνο και λαχτάρα  παρακαλεί ενδόμυχα να μην έχει πάθει κανένα κακό. Στα γεμάτα από πανικό μάτια της, το θέαμα έρχεται φρικτό. Το ακριβό της ταίρι,  ολόκληρη η ευτυχία της, έχει άκαρδα θανατωθεί από το κοντάρι του Αχιλλέα. 

«Νύχτα ολοσκότεινη τα μάτια της μεμιάς αποσκεπάζει 

και πίσω πέφτοντας σωριάστηκε και λίγωσε η καρδιά της 

της φεύγει η κεφαλόδεση σκορπώντας δώθε κείθε». 

                                                                              Χ 466-468 

Από τον σπαραγμό του πόνου της διασκορπίζεται η κεφαλόδεση, το σύμβολο των ευτυχισμένων στιγμών κι ο πέπλος που της δόθηκε από την Αφροδίτη ως δώρο γάμου, όταν ο κρανοσείστης την πήρε ταίρι. Ίσως, γιατί η όμορφη Ανδρομάχη δεν τα χρειάζεται πια να τη στολίζουν. 

«Οι συννυφάδες και οι ανδραδερφές την τριγυρίζαν όλες, 

αναβαστώντας την ως σπαρτάριζε να ξεψυχήσει ομπρός τους». 

                                                                                                X 473-474 

Μόλις συνέρχεται, θρηνεί  το τέλος της συζυγικής της ευτυχίας. Μέσα στην οδύνη της για το χαμό του αγαπημένου της, αναλογίζεται όχι τόσο τη δική της δυστυχία, όσο το δύσμοιρο παιδί τους που ορφανεμένο αρχοντόπουλο, θα το διώχνουν πια όλοι, θα το χτυπούν και θα το βρίζουν. Τη συμφορά της  μεγαλώνει ο ευτελισμός του νεκρού Έκτορα, ο διασυρμός του μέχρι τα αργίτικα πλοία και το ξεγύμνωμά του. 

«Εσένα τώρα δίπλα στ’ άρμενα κι αλάργα από τους γονιούς σου 

σκουλήκια θα σε φαν γοργόστροφα, 

τους σκύλους σα χορτάσεις γυμνός…» 

                                                        Χ 508-510 

Το όνομα της Ανδρομάχης μέσα στην Ιλιάδα αναφέρεται για τελευταία φορά με τον δεύτερο γοερό της θρήνο στη ραψωδία Ω. Στέκεται επάνω στο κάστρο μαζί με την πονεμένη μάνα, την Εκάβη, ανάμεσα σε πλήθος Τρώων και Τρωαδιτισσών, και δέχεται την άμαξα με τον νεκρό πια Έκτορα. Όταν φτάνουν στο σπίτι, πρώτη κινάει το μοιρολόγι της η Ανδρομάχη, κρατώντας πάντα μέσα στα χέρια της το κεφάλι του αγαπημένου της: 

«Άντρα μου, εχάθης πα στα νειάτα σου, κι εμένα αφήνεις χήρα στο σπίτι μέσα, 

κι είναι ανήλικο, μικρό παιδάκι ο γιος μας». 

                                                                 Ω 725-726 

 Σαν να προμαντεύει, συνεχίζει το μοιρολόγι της με το κάστρο που θα πατηθεί, αφού ο υπερασπιστής του έχει πια χαθεί· θρηνεί για τα δεινά που περιμένουν την πόλη τους από το μένος των Αχαιών. Η μοίρα της όμως γίνεται πιο φρικτή, γιατί ο ΄Εκτορας δεν τελειώνει στα χέρια της, ώστε να έχει παρηγοριά τα τελευταία του λόγια, ακριβή συντροφιά της στα ημερόνυχτα που θα τον κλαίει. 

«΄Oμως εμένα από όλους πότισες το πιο πικρό φαρμάκι τι από το στρώμα σου πεθαίνοντας δε μου άπλωσες τα χέρια κι ούτε καμιά απ’ το στόμα σου άκουσα παρηγοριάς κουβέντα μέρα και νύχτα εγώ στους θρήνους μου να την κρατώ στο νου μου». 

                                                                                Ω 742 –745 

Η Ανδρομάχη, από την πρώτη της παρουσία στην Ιλιάδα, παραμένει σύμβολο μέχρι και τον τελευταίο της θρήνο. Αποτελεί μεγαλείο μορφής,  που διατρανώνει πανανθρώπινα την αφοσίωσή της στις μεγάλες αξίες της ζωής και τη λαχτάρα της για ειρηνική διαβίωση, αλλά και την απαρασάλευτη προσήλωσή της στο χρέος που αψηφά το θάνατο. Παραμένει πιστή στη θέση που της έταξε το ακριβό της ταίρι, στην περιοχή της γυναικείας της δράσης, στον αργαλειό,  όπως πιστός παραμένει και ο Έκτορας που παραδίνεται στο θάνατο για την πατρίδα. 

Μετά την άλωση  της Τροίας, η Ανδρομάχη πιάστηκε αιχμάλωτη και, στη διανομή ανάμεσα στους νικητές, έπεσε στον κλήρο του Νεοπτόλεμου, γιου τού νεκρού πια Αχιλλέα. Ο Νεοπτόλεμος την οδήγησε στη Φθία,  την έκανε γυναίκα του και απέκτησαν μαζί ένα παιδί, τον Μολοσσό (Παυσ. Α 11, 1) ή τον Αμφίαλο (Υγίνος, Fabulae 123). Λιγότερο επικρατούσες εκδοχές αναφέρουν και άλλα δύο τέκνα τους, τον Πίελο και τον Πέργαμο. Μετά τον θάνατο και του Νεοπτόλεμου, η Ανδρομάχη έφυγε με τον Έλενο, τον αδελφό του Έκτορα, στην Ήπειρο. Εκεί έχτισαν μαζί τη Νέα Τροία. Ο Αινείας τους συνάντησε στο ταξίδι του για την Ιταλία (Αινειάδα, 3, 294 κ.ε.). Μυθολογείται πως και με τον Έλενο έκανε παιδί η Ανδρομάχη, τον Κεστρίνο (Παυσ. Β 23, 6). Η Ανδρομάχη έζησε ακόμα και του Έλενου τον θάνατο, οπότε μετά, κατά μία εκδοχή, μετανάστευσε με τον γιο της Πέργαμο στην Τευθρανία της Μυσίας. Εκεί ο Πέργαμος νίκησε τον βασιλιά Άρειο και έδωσε στην πόλη το δικό του όνομα. Ο Παυσανίας γράφει ότι εκεί σωζόταν μνημείο της Ανδρομάχης μέχρι την εποχή του (Α 11, 2).

Επίλογος

Η Εκάβη και η Ανδρομάχη επηρέασαν από το μεσαίωνα μέχρι σήμερα πολλούς δημιουργούς σε όλο τον κόσμο. Ενδεικτικά αναφέρουμε: 

1. «Ο πόλεμος της Τρωάδος», παράφραση του γαλλικού μυθιστορήματος Le Roman de Troie του Benoît de Sainte Maure ( 12ο αιώνας),
2. «Ανδρομάχη» του Ρακίνα, τραγωδία σε πέντε πράξεις (18ος αιώνας)
3. «Η Εκάβη τυφλώνει τον Πολυμήστορα», ελαιογραφία του Giuseppe Maria Crespi (πρώτο μισό 18ου αι.). Σύμφωνα με τη μυθολογία, όπως αυτή παρουσιάζεται στην ομώνυμη τραγωδία του Ευριπίδη, στον Τρωικό Πόλεμο έχασε τα αρσενικά παιδιά της και, μετά την άλωση της Τροίας, την Κασσάνδρα, την Πολυξένη και τον μικρότερο γιο της, τον Πολύδωρο, τον οποίο ο Πρίαμος είχε εμπιστευτεί στον Θράκα βασιλιά Πολυμήστορα. Τον θάνατο του αδικοχαμένου γιου της εκδικήθηκε η αιχμάλωτη Εκάβη με την τύφλωση του Πολυμήστορα, όπως παρουσιάζεται στον συγκεκριμένο πίνακα. 
4. «Η Ανδρομάχη σε αιχμαλωσία»,  ελαιογραφία του Lord Frederic Leighton (1886–1888), 19ος αιώνας
5. «Ελένη», ποίημα του Γιώργου Σεφέρη (1953)
6. «Τρωάδες», ταινία του Μιχάλη Κακογιάννη (1971)

Μέσα στις φλόγες του πολέμου και του θανάτου, κι οι δυο έχασαν την πατρίδα τους, τους δικούς τους ανθρώπους, κομμάτια του εαυτού τους.    Η ύπαρξη κι η παρουσία τους αθάνατη. Ο θρήνος κι η κραυγή τους, μια διαμαρτυρία διαχρονική. 

Μητροπούλου Σμαραγδή

Αναφορές

Bell Robert E. (1993). Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary, Oxford University Press.

Lesky A. (1985).  Ιστορία της Αρχαίας Ελληνικής Λογοτεχνίας,  Θεσσαλονίκη: εκδ. Κυριακίδη.

Μήντα Δήμητρα (2012). Μορφές και Θέματα της Αρχαίας Ελληνικής Μυθολογίας. Aνακτήθηκε από https://www.greek-language.gr/

Ομήρου Ιλιάδα (μετάφραση Καζαντζάκης Ι., – Κακριδής Θ.),   Αθήνα: Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών. Ίδρυμα Μανώλη Τριανταφυλλίδη

Χαλκιά-Στεφάνου Πόπη (2002). Γυναικείες Μορφές στον Όμηρο,  Περιοδικό Δάφνη, 8, 3-11

About the Author

Η Σμαραγδή Μητροπούλου γεννήθηκε στην Αθήνα. Σπούδασε Ιστορία και Αρχαιολογία στην Ελλάδα και τη Μεγάλη Βρετανία. Υπηρετεί στη Δευτεροβάθμια Εκπαίδευση. Το ποιητικό και πεζογραφικό της έργο έχουν αποσπάσει βραβεία και διακρίσεις στην Ελλάδα και στο εξωτερικό. Είναι μέλος του Διοικητικού Συμβουλίου (Executive Board Member) του Writers Capital International Foundation και ισόβιο μέλος (Lifetime Fellow Member) του International Society for Development and Sustainability (ISDS) με έδρα την Ιαπωνία. Έχoυν εκδοθεί και κυκλοφορούν επτά βιβλία της στην Ελλάδα. Ποιήματα της έχουν μεταφραστεί στην αγγλική, κινεζική και ισπανική γλώσσα, καθώς και στα Ταιβανέζικα και στη γλώσσα Μπενγκάλι κι έχουν δημοσιευτεί σε site και περιοδικά στην Ευρώπη, στην Ασία και στη Λατινική Αμερική. Επίσης, ασχολείται με την τέχνη της φωτογραφίας κι έχει συμμετάσχει σε ομαδικές εκθέσεις στην Ελλάδα και στο εξωτερικό.

 

Παράρτημα

 

Εικόνα 1. Ο Πρίαμος, η Εκάβη και η Ανδρομάχη προσπαθούν να πείσουν τον Έκτορα να μην πάει στη μάχη. Ταπιτσερία, περίπου 1470–90. Νέα Υόρκη, Μητροπολιτικό Μουσείο, 39.74

 

Εικόνα 2. Αποχαιρετισμός Έκτορα και Ανδρομάχης, Gavin Hamilton,  The Hunterian, University of Glasgow

 

Εικόνα 3. «Η Ανδρομάχη σε αιχμαλωσία»,  ελαιογραφία του Lord Frederic Leighton MANCHESTER, Manchester Art Gallery (1889.2)

 

Εικόνα 4. «Η Εκάβη τυφλώνει τον Πολυμήστορα», ελαιογραφία του Giuseppe Maria Crespi. BRUSSELS, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium (257)

 

Introduction

The concept of global responsibility has become central to the discourse surrounding the resolution of major issues facing humanity. As the social fabric and various societies become increasingly interconnected, the moral obligation for collective action extends beyond the narrow boundaries of a nation-state. Classical philosophy, with its timeless teachings, and practical philosophy, which focuses on applied ethics to address modern dilemmas, offer powerful tools for cultivating a strong sense of global responsibility.

It is clear that contemporary societies face unprecedented challenges that demand responsibility and global cooperation. Issues such as the need for planetary sustainability, inequalities (including those exacerbated by technological advancements), and social disparities come to the forefront.

In this context, the contribution of both classical and practical philosophy is vital for understanding global responsibility and shaping ethical guidelines. This presentation aims to examine how classical and practical philosophy can contribute to the development of this sense of responsibility, focusing on their relationship with the rapid development of science and technology, which affects the entire social fabric on a global scale.

Classical Philosophy and Global Responsibility

Classical philosophy, beginning with the teachings of ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, lays the foundation for the development of moral virtues and the cultivation of “eudaimonia” (well-being). The idea of collective responsibility and solidarity formed the basis for ethical philosophy and the sense of duty towards the community. Socrates, through his dialectic method, emphasized the importance of personal responsibility for the improvement of society. The classical notion of “virtue” is directly linked to the idea of responsibility, as virtuous citizens strive for the common good, not just their personal benefit or interests. Plato, through his Republic, developed the concept of justice as a central virtue of society, while Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, emphasized that happiness (eudaimonia) is achieved through just actions. According to his philosophy, ethics are not theoretical but practical, and closely tied to the individual’s responsibility for their actions.
In relation to modern issues, the teachings of ancient philosophers have a timeless relevance. Environmental crises caused by the reckless exploitation of natural resources, and inequalities—now further exacerbated by technological advances—are problems that require an ethical approach based on principles of justice and virtue. For example, Aristotle’s principle of “the golden mean” can be applied to technology: excessive reliance on it can lead to inequalities and negative consequences in many areas, while rejecting it altogether would deprive society of its benefits. The inability of the state and society to manage inequalities often leads to conflicts and even global crises that require collective responsibility for their resolution. Increasingly, global unity based on solidarity and fraternity is needed to prevent violent conflicts on an international level.

Practical Philosophy and Applied Ethics

Practical philosophy focuses on solving contemporary ethical dilemmas such as resource inequality, bioethics, and the impact of technological progress. Philosophers like Kant, with his categorical imperative, propose ethics that promote individual responsibility towards humanity as a whole. Practical philosophy and applied ethics aim to offer solutions to specific moral problems that humanity faces. One of the main fields of practical philosophy is bioethics, which addresses ethical issues arising from scientific and medical advances. Since the 1970s, when bioethics began to develop as an autonomous field, philosophers have tried to answer questions related to society’s responsibility for the use of genetic technology (e.g., cloning), biotechnology, and artificial intelligence.

Practical philosophy emphasizes the need to consider the consequences of our actions and choices globally and over time. Peter Singer, for instance, addresses global poverty and advocates the idea that our ethical responsibility extends beyond national borders. In The Life You Can Save, Singer argues that individuals in wealthy countries have a moral obligation to help those suffering from extreme poverty, providing a framework of global moral responsibility rooted in the classical idea of philanthropy. The ethics of responsibility also call upon states and their citizens to act to protect the environment and reduce the depletion of the planet’s finite resources, a practice primarily carried out by developed nations, which disproportionately affects – as is customary – the most vulnerable.

Science and Philosophy

The relationship between science and philosophy is deep and interdependent. Science, often focused on discovering the truth about the physical world, needs philosophy to define the ethical frameworks within which it should operate. Nuclear energy, for example, is a characteristic case where scientific progress can have dreadful consequences if not guided by ethical principles. For instance, the debate on the ethics of artificial intelligence analyses how the use of algorithms can reinforce social inequalities and affect global labour and economy. The absence of philosophical thought in science can lead to dangerous developments, as humanity has unfortunately experienced in the recent past. The development of nuclear weapons and the destruction they caused in Hiroshima and Nagasaki is one of the most characteristic examples where science escaped ethical barriers and control. A philosophy of moral responsibility could have prevented such developments through the promotion of international ethical principles.

Philosophical Revolution as a Means for Global Responsibility

The inability – and worse – unwillingness of states to cooperate with each other and the lack of ethical governance has intensified global crises. Philosophy has historically been an invaluable source of wisdom for addressing humanity’s greatest challenges. Faced with contemporary global problems, the need for a new model of global responsibility is becoming increasingly urgent. Through principles of justice, virtue, and harmony, philosophy can offer the new model required for shaping a humane, sustainable, and prosperous future.

Environmental Protection through Philosophy and the Integration of Justice into Global Policies

Classical philosophers, such as Aristotle, emphasized that justice is the fundamental virtue that ensures the balance and well-being of society. In the context of protecting our planet, in the modern era the emerges concept of “climate justice”, recognizing that the poorest countries and the most vulnerable societies are the most affected by the environmental crisis, even though they have contributed the least to it. Here, justice demands that developed countries take greater responsibility. For example, the Paris Agreement, an international treaty to address the climate crisis, represents a step towards climate justice. It promotes cooperation among countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reflecting the philosophical principle of global solidarity and responsibility.

Inequality, in whatever form it takes, is another issue that philosophy can illuminate through the principle of justice. Today’s enormous economic inequality, combined with unequal access to basic resources and infrastructure such as healthcare, education, and technology, creates conditions of social injustice that threaten social cohesion. Philosophy, especially the theories of social justice and equality for all, can offer guidelines for creating more just societies. Kant, for example, emphasizes that people must be treated as “ends” and not merely as “means”, indicating the need to prioritize human dignity and equal rights for everyone.

Technological Progress, Ethical Challenges, and the Necessity of a Philosophical Revolution

Technological progress, such as artificial intelligence, genetic engineering, and digital globalization, demands ethical guidance to avoid both inequalities and abuses. Philosophers like Habermas argue that technology should not evolve without the moral consent of society. Transparency, ethical accountability, and participatory decision-making are necessary for the proper use of technology for the benefit of all, not just an elite. Humanity stands at a critical juncture where global crises require a profound philosophical and, certainly, peaceful revolution. Philosophy should no longer be limited to theoretical reflections but actively integrated into political and social structures, as it can form the foundation for creating a new global model that ensures harmony between science, economy, society, and environment.

Collective Action in Global Cohesion and the Role of Education

To achieve truly sustainable change, collective action at a global level is required, in form of cooperation among nations and communities, aimed at developing a culture that promotes solidarity, justice, and sustainability. Each society should recognize the global responsibility it bears and work together with others to find solutions that ensure the welfare of all. Education – as everywhere else – plays a central role in this process. By teaching philosophical values and critical thinking, we can prepare future generations to think responsibly and ethically, understanding the impacts of their actions on the world. The incorporation of philosophy into the educational system encourages the continuous pursuit of knowledge and self-awareness, promoting individual and collective responsibility. From the earliest educational levels, children around the world – the grassroots – should be nurtured with these universal values, which have always been at the centre of every sustainable solution.

Conclusion

Taking all the above into consideration, the challenges we face nowadays are great, nonetheless the solution lies in our hands. Philosophy can provide us with the framework, but ultimately, our actions are those to determine the future. Humanity now – more than ever before – needs a new philosophical approach that incorporates global responsibility, humanitarianism, and sustainability. Therefore, the contribution of both classical and practical philosophy to the development of a sense of global responsibility is undeniable. By recognizing global responsibility and the need for ethical governance, philosophical values can become the beacon that guides us toward a better, sustainable, and fairer world. Only in this way can we achieve the cohesion and harmony necessary for the welfare of humanity – one that we all deserve and wish for.

Irene Doura Kavadia
Editor-in-Chief
Writers International Edition

Bibliography

Online Resources

1. World Economic Forum. “The Global Risks Report 2024.” WEF.
2. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). “Education for Sustainable Development.”
3. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: “Kant’s Moral Philosophy” – https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/
4. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: “Plato” – https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/
5. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: “Aristotle” – https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/
6. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: “Jürgen Habermas” – https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/habermas/
7. Internet Classics Archive

Abstract

In this digitalized era where every learner is learning through apps and gadgets, the crisis of human values is intensifying in contemporary society and casting its evil shadow in all walks of life without any boundaries in between of caste, creed, age, religion and ethnicity. The dream of ensuring harmony, happiness and prosperity seems to be just a dream that can never be fulfilled if no action is being taken in the direction with immediate effect to inculcate and impart values in young generation, which is completely engrossed in, and have become the puppet of technology including various social media platforms. This paper makes an attempt to explore what universal values are needed to be instilled in youth for a better society and their own holistic growth and how through poetry, values can be transferred in learners to ensure harmony and happiness, moreover to turn them in civilized professionals with suffice ethics.

Keywords: digitalized; harmony; prosperity; universal values; society.

For any society to flourish human values are substantially foundational. Values are “the principles, ideals, fundamental convictions and standard of behaviour that help in one’s judgment of what is important in life” (Sharma and Setia). If good core values are inculcated in the citizens of a society, the society moves towards the creation of a just, happy and good society. 

Unfortunately, the promises we make to meet our destiny and the dreams we see to have prosperity, social well-being and human happiness prove to be false due to the absence of values in the people at present time; due to more inclination towards technology and secluded life rather than focus on rationality in thoughts and expressions without being selfish. This lacuna or value crisis prevails in different spheres of people’s life categorizing these into individual, societal, intellectual or cultural and nature levels. 

Individualism has been rooted in people deeply and turning them towards attaining personal success or worldly success defined in merely materialistic terms as the acquirement of wealth, supremacy and status in society. A. N. Tripathi says: 

“The rat race to this success commands the enthusiastic support of the powerful middle and elite classes. Their upbringing and enculturation have tuned them to the single-minded pursuit of career growth and economic success. All other life values, which give meaning, worth, and fullness to human existence, are seen as roadblocks and unnecessary diversions from the high road to material success.” (3)

Consequently, the perception of a good life is misunderstood as “with unrestricted enjoyment of sensuous pleasures and fulfilment of unlimited desires” which is a “consumeristic haven filled with all kinds of artefacts for comfort and luxury” (Tripathi 3). On the other hand, criticizing commonly accepted notions of success and the good life does not mean looking down upon the usual human preferences for monetary benefit, physical facilities and enjoyment of life’s pleasures. There is no doubt these things are important for life but are they the only things which are important for a good life? The question is what are the real goals of a human endeavouring for happiness and harmony? At present this crisis of values is basically due to excessive focus on the accumulation of materialistic things rather than paying attention to inculcating and implementing life values such as love, affection, empathy, respect, trust etc. According to A. N. Tripathi writes in his book Human Values about the dimensions of increased crisis of values may be due to increasing respectability of selfish individualism; rise in rights-consciousness and decline in duty-consciousness, and the mentality of adopting double standards of value judgment. (4-5)

Mainly there are two categories of people in society. On one side people who are self-seeking, career-oriented and people who just think about their personal advancement without paying much heed to human relations. In the contrast, there is another kind of 

“individualistic personality; of those who refuse to submerge their individual identity in the tide of social and behavioural fashions of the day, who do not sacrifice their principles and values for pecuniary gains, and who are able to withstand unethical allurements of the work life and the psychological pressures of being the odd-man out.” (Tripathi 4)

This is a breed that is disappearing and another one is creating a crisis situation of human values in mushrooming youth. Therefore the youth should be educated to develop social consciousness, sovereign temper and communitarian outlooks to remove social inequalities, disharmonies and lack of social cohesiveness. Youth should be directed towards making society an enlightened and egalitarian society with better humans in it instead of focusing and utilizing all their energy on attaining physical facilities and achieving high status. It creates a dire need for the nurturance of human values in the youth of the country so that via implementing these values with the right understanding in them they serve the nation establishing harmony at various levels including individual, family, society and nature.

Imbibing basic human values and creating a deeper insight towards humanity can be actualized through value education in teenagers and young learners at the school and college levels. Hence “value education aims at developing deeper concerns amongst the individuals for the well-being of the society while being selfless,” it can assist in enhancing values in an individual, which “often gets overlooked due to the modern information-oriented education” and required to shape the personality (Jain 2). 

A rich cultural heritage with saints, philosophers and many writers and poets are perfect illustrations who talked about the foundational values such as honesty, discipline, love, compassion, frugality, cleanliness, non-violence, courage, integrity, respect etc. These are the values which one needs to understand and express through one’s behaviour with the right understanding. Kshitiz Jain has communicated-

“The family and society act as constant teachers who keep on nurturing these values from time to time. They make an individual realize the true worth of these values. At times, they act as reflectors of human values. They strengthen the sense of differentiation between right and wrong. Both the family and the society explain that the values are universal in nature.” (7)

Values help in building social cohesion, harmony, peace and global integration and ideal humanity leading towards the dream of creating an ‘Akhand Samaj’. Via the process of exploring one’s ‘Self’ through either ‘experiential validation’ or ‘natural acceptance’ of values and understanding the needs of a human being differentiating animal consciousness from human consciousness, one can lead to a path of right living. The inculcation of values assists human in various ways as follows:

• It leads to a happy and healthy life fulfilling all aspirations and objectives of one’s life.
• It assists in deciding aspirations and aims for what one really wants via the process of self-exploration.
• It promotes tolerance and understanding for people across the world breaking all boundaries and eliminating barriers for making the world a global world.
• It enhances the decision-making power of a human differing right and wrong deeds to perform without hurting others moreover, assisting others to fulfil their goals too.
• It encourages keenness, and grows the right attitude and capability to deliberate and judge oneself.
• It helps in developing professional ethics in oneself to create and work in a better work environment.
• It triggers humans to make a balance between all four orders of nature including material, bio, plant and animal order.

Therefore the youth needs to act according to ethical human conduct for the holistic growth of oneself and the society including nature in it. The participation of an individual to ensure harmony at various levels includes accountability (jimmedari), right understanding (samajhdaari), honesty (imaandari), and participation (bhagidaari).  

Subsequently, poetry is “one of the powerful instructional tools and an important art to study at any age and most universal vehicle of human expression” to spread harmony in society and to inculcate human values in the learners via good poems which are written by great poets whole over the world. (Anupama et al.)

Poetry being an aesthetic and expressive medium of communication touches the hearts of readers instilling fundamental core values in them. Moreover, poems have always been an excellent way in which depth of emotions is realized via its language’s richness. The purpose of writing poems by various poets may be different but many of them are written on diverse humanitarian issues and related to cherishing the beauty of nature which can be chosen for imparting and implementing of values in the young generation as these have the most intense and long-lasting impact on readers and listeners’ minds and hearts.

James Kirkup’s poem ‘No Men are Foreign’ is one of the upright exemplars to teach the value of universal brotherhood, non-violence and equality to create a harmonious environment in the world. He tried to make everyone remember that no man is a stranger and no country is a foreign country by the lines-

“Remember, no men are strange, no countries foreign
Beneath all uniforms, a single body breathes
Like ours: the land our brothers walk upon
Is earth like this, in which we all shall lie.”

Kirkup

Further, the poet gives evidence of the unity of man how all the people of the world are nurtured equally by natural resources like ‘sun and air and water’ and they all are “fed by peaceful harvests, by war’s long winter starv’d” (Kirkup). It can be instilled in the youngsters that everyone toils to earn livelihood and others’ destiny is also similar to ours. The poem teaches that whatever is told to us by leaders or rulers to hate or exploit the people of other countries or societies, “it should be remembered well that it is ourselves/That we shall dispossess, betray, condemn” (Kirkup). It clearly states that hatred and wars would deprive us of the bliss of universal brotherhood hence it is a form of self-destruction and we would doom ourselves to a life of animosity and eccentricity. Therefore everyone especially the youth of the country needs to understand that all are equal on the earth and we must live a valued life with universal core values such as love, respect and trust spreading harmony in the aura. 

Our lifestyle, culture, gender economic or literacy status may vary but we all are the same as we all have some type of body with in which one’s ‘self’ resides and our heart breathes. Thus the poem can be taken for deliberation and facilitation of values in the youth to get rid of their minds of xenophobia and to treat the people of this world with a feeling of universal brotherhood as one. In the poem ‘Mending Wall’ Robert Frost also initiates by saying that there is something “that doesn’t love a wall” even though in the same poem he suggested that ‘Good fences make good neighbours’ (Frost).

An Indian-born Canadian poet Rupi Kaur talks about gender equality in her poems to create awareness in relation to equal human rights for women can be chosen to elaborate and impart value education in youngsters so that in our patriarchal society especially young boys and men understand it and change their mindset towards women and girls. Considering all equal, everyone should practice the value of love in him or her that she expresses through one of her poems – 

“to hate
is an easy lazy thing
but to love
takes strength
everyone has
but not all are
willing to practice.”

Kaur

‘Viswa Kavi’ or poet of the world Rabindra Nath Tagore also advocated the idea of global uprightness due to his universal ideology.  His poem “Where the Mind is Without Fear” is “a hymn to inspire all mankind” where he wanted India to be a fearless country post-independence following the ideology of peace, fearlessness and universal brotherhood. (Hasan) Badrul Hasan says-

“The verse continues to exhort people—particularly in conflict zones across the world—to seek fearless truth, progressive thoughts and actions, and to stand up and see the world as one, undivided by borders or “narrow domestic walls.”

Hasan

Beyond racism and discrimination, Maya Angelou’s poems also try to empower humanity for making the world an integrated one spreading harmony at all levels without any boundary lines. There are many famous poets who have exerted through their poems to spread awareness and inculcate values in the readers and quoted by people frequently. Therefore poetry 

“emphasizes the role of the senses, calling to mind memories and feelings and an excellent tool for encouraging students’ creativity and for exposing the aesthetically elastic boundaries of language. Poetry encourages students to develop empathy and understanding to view the complexities of the world in new ways.” (Anupama)

Having an important place in lives of people with excellent and rhythmical language used in poems, these poems not only attract people for the sake of attaining pleasure but also influence by the lexis and aesthetic qualities and shots of values to implement in their lives. They need to read or listen poetry with a mindset to explore the ‘self’ and to awaken the ‘sense’ and to connect with rest of the nature and society ensuring harmony and making a balance between the use of technology and ethics. Thus it can be said that a good literary piece of writing 

“can be vital to language development and competence; conflict resolution; and cultural assimilation; emotional development and stability; development of positive and good oriented attitudes of life.” (Anupama et al.)

Works Cited

• Anupama, V. et al. “Role of English Literature to Inculcate Human Values”. Tejasvi Astitva- Multi-lingual Multi Disciplinary Research Journal.
• Frost, Robert. ‘Mending Wall.’ https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44266/mending-wall
• Hasan, Badrul. A Hymn For All Mankind: Where The Mind Is Without Fear. https://www.readersdigest.in/conversations/story-a-hymn-for-all-mankind-where-the-mind-is-without-fear-…-125689
• Kaur, Rupi. https://www.littleinfinite.com/20-of-rupi-kaurs-best-poems/
• Kirkup, James. ‘No Men Are Foreign.’ http://www.english-for-students.com/no-men-are-foreign.html
• Jain, Kshitiz. Human Values. Neelkanth Publishers, 2014.
• Sharma, Priyanka and Rajni Setia. Human Values. Genius publications, Jaipur, 2017.
• Tripathi, A. N. Human Values. New Age International Publishers, 2014.

About the author

An avid poet, writer, humanitarian, ambassador of peace and professor, Dr Shalini Yadav holds a PhD in Post-colonial Literature and M. Phil in English Language Teaching (ELT) from the University of Rajasthan, India and a course in Advanced Creative Writing from the University of Oxford, UK. During her tenure as an educator in India, Libya and Saudi Arabia, she has participated and presented papers at conferences and seminars, chaired sessions and delivered lectures. She keeps reading her poems and short stories at various National and International poetry carnivals. She has meticulously written and also reviewed a large number of scholarly research articles for various National and International refereed journals and edited volumes. She is Public Relation Officer at iSPELL India, Administrator and Star Poetry Publisher at The Passion of Poetry and member of various literary societies including prestigious Writers Capital Foundation, ICERT, PLCS, AINET etc. She is Chief Editor for the International Forum of The Internal News. The editor of Open Page in Writers International Edition, she is also an efficacious member of the editorial boards of various qualitative journals of many countries. She has authored and edited 10 books till now and working on her next project entitled Contemporary African Women Writers . Her major books include Reconnoitering Postcolonial Literature , Emerging Psyche of Women: A Feminist Perspective , On the Wings of Life: Women Writing Womanhood , Postcolonial Transition and Cultural Dialectics , and Communication Techniques . Besides, her poetry books includes Across the Seas , Floating Haiku , Kinship With You: A Collection of Poems , Till the End of Her Subsistence: An Anthology of Poems , and one in Hindi Kshitiz Ke Us Paar . Many of her short stories and poems are published in numerous peer-reviewed journals and anthologies. She is recipient of Savitribai Phule Excellence Award-2023, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Award-2023 and Global Women Icon Award-2023.